Athletic Identity and Perceived Competence in Children with Visual Impairments
Research Application
Originally published in Palaestra, 19 (4), 6-7.
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Developing a sense of competence with regard to one’s skills and abilities is an important aspect of identity formation (Groff & Kleiber, 2001). Through participation in sport, one may discover that he/she identifies with other people who participate in that sport and thus may consider the degree to which he/she possesses similar or dissimilar characteristics. If these images are incorporated into one’s sense of self, they facilitate identity definition by reinforcing self-perceptions (Groff & Kleiber, 2001). Groff and Kleiber (2001) found that adolescents with physical disabilities involved in a community adapted sports program expanded their sense of competence, demonstrated their abilities in areas in which others did not expect them to have abilities, were emotionally expressive, and experienced a sense of being able to express their true selves. Similarly, Blinde & McClung (1997) found that recreational pursuits for individuals with disabilities influenced physical and social self-perceptions in that participation afforded participants an opportunity to feel what it is like to do different activities, enhance their beliefs regarding their physical abilities, and increase their confidence to try new activities. Sport, however, may pose some threats to identity formation. A strong and exclusive athletic identity may predispose athletes to emotional difficulties such as depression when they are unable to participate in sport (Martin et al., 1995). Additionally, participants who choose to play sports and do not meet any degree of success may develop lowered perceptions of competence, self-esteem and mastery (Groff & Kleiber, 2001). Lowered self-perceptions have been found to result in decreased efforts and increased likelihood of withdrawing from sport and physical activity participation.
A significant challenge for children with visual impairment (VI) is finding opportunities and/or programs in which to participate. For children with VI community sport programs are inconsistently delivered, difficult to find, and often lack instruction and team play opportunities (Groff & Kleiber, 2001). Such program weaknesses reflect, in part, the perception that individuals with VI are not legitimate or real athletes (Martin, Adams-Mushett, & Smith, 1995). The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of athletic identity and examine the relation-ship between athletic identity and perceived athletic competence among children with VI involved in an organized instructional goalball program.
Method
Participants
A total of 11 children with visual impairments (5 males and 6 females) 9-19 years of age (M = 13.27, SD = 3.34) participated. All athletes had a congenital visual impairment with approximately five B1, three B2, and three B3 athletes. None of the athletes had participated in a season long developmental goal-ball program. Athletes and/or their parents/guardian provided consent to participate in this study.
Instrument
Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS; Martin et al., 1994)) is a nine-item instrument used to assess athletic identity. The AIMS contains four subscales assessing self identity, social identity, exclusivity, and negative affectivity. Participants respond to each item on a 7-point scale with 7 anchored by strongly agree and 1 anchored by strongly disagree.
Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP; Fox & Corbin, 1989) consists of five 6-item subscales of which only the perceived sport competence subscale was used. Wording in each of the 6 sport competence items was modified to reflect the sport of goalball. Each of the six items consists of pairs of statements. Athletes first choose which of the two statements are most like them. Athletes then decide if the chosen statement is really true or sort of true for them. Items are later scored on a 4-point scale with 4 reflecting high perceived competence and 1 reflecting low perceived competence.
Data Collection Procedures
Participants completed the AIMS and the PSPP both at the start and at the end of the 7-week goalball season. Athletes were told there were no right or wrong answers, that their answers would be kept confidential, and were encouraged to respond as honestly as possible. Each instrument was read aloud to each athlete individually in an area removed from the practice.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics of responses on the AIMS and PSPP were calculated for both pre- and post-test. Pearson Correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between perceived competence and athletic identity. Independent t-tests were used to determine gender differences. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test for pre/post-test differences in perceived competence and athletic identity.
Results
Perceptions of athletic competence were positive both at the start (M = 3. 15, SD = .53) and at the end of the season (M = 3.2, SD = .61). With regard to athletic identity, at the start and end of the season, respectively athletes scored high on self-identity (M = 5.1, SD = 1.6, M = 5.5, SD = 1.8), moderate on social identity (M = 3.9, SD = 1.9, M = 4.3, SD = 2.1) and negative affectivity (M = 3.7, SD = 1.8; M =3.8, SD = 1.9) and low on exclusivity (M = 2.8, SD = 2.2; M=2.8, SD = 1.4). There were no gender and pre/post-test differences in perceptions of competence or athletic identity.
A significant relationship was found between perceived competence and athletic identity at the end of the season (r = .88). The relationship between perceived competence and athletic identity at the start of the season (r = .48) was not statistically significant. Post-test relationships existed between self-identity and social identity (r = 91), self-identity and exclusivity (r = .67), and social identity and exclusivity (r = .82).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to describe athletic identity and examine the relationship between athletic identity and perceived competence among children with VI involved in an organized instructional goalball program. Athletes had positive perceptions of competence throughout the goalball season. The ratings of perceived competence indicated that in general, children with VI in the present study felt moderate to good about their athletic skills. Future research should examine the degree to which these findings are generalizable across individuals with VI and the influence of various types of social support on perceptions of competence of children with VI (Martin et al., 1995).
Athletes in the present study reported strong identification with the athletic role, expressing moderate scores on social-identity reflecting the athlete’s belief that others see them as athletes. This finding is positive given previous reports in the disability sport literature that people often do not see athletes with disabilities as legitimate or serious athletes (Martin et al., 1994). However, athletes’ scores on self-identity in the present investigation were higher than those of social-identity, reflecting that others do not see children with VI as athletes to the same degree that children with VI see themselves as athletes. The degree to which the athletes in the present study were able to discount societal views of them as not true athletes may reflect the feed-back they received when playing. Positive verbal feedback and physical guidance from the coaches and knowledge that they scored a goal may have been more salient in the athlete’s self evaluations than expectations of others (Groff & Kleiber, 2001). Exclusivity and negative scores were low suggesting that athletes tend to be well rounded and balanced and do not experience emotional difficulties when they are unable to participate in sports. This may reflect the lack of opportunities athletes with VI have for intense training and competition under which circumstances they would be likely to develop strong emotional commitments to training.
Implications
The interrelationship among the AIMS subscales, specifically the self and social identity subscales and perceptions of competence at the end of the season suggests that with optimal challenges and opportunities for success athletes with VI can identify with the athletic
role and develop positive perceptions of competence. A positive relationship between perceived competence and athletic identity provides insights regarding how athletes with VI direct their motivation. Such a positive relationship reflects a likelihood of continued sport participation, a willingness to try new activities, and a striving to achieve personally set goals (Martin et al., 1995). This information should increase awareness and acceptance of children with VI as athletes. Researchers and practitioners can use this information to seek out funding and recruitment opportunities to increase program opportunities and involvement of children with VI in sports.
Selected References
Blinde, E. M., & McClung, L. R. (1997). Enhancing the physical and social self through recreational activity: Accounts of individuals with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 327-344.
Fox, K. R, & Corbin, C. B. (1989). Physical Self-Perception Profile manual. DeKalb, IL: Office for Health Promotion, Northern Illinois University.
Groff, D. G., & Kleiber, D. A. (2001). Exploring the identity formation of youth involved in an adapted sports program. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 35, 318-332.
Martin, J. J.,Adams-Mushett, C., & Eklund, R. (1994). Factor structure of the athletic identity measurement scale with adolescent swimmers with disabilities. Brazilian International Journal of Adapted Physical Education, 1, 87-99.
Martin, J. J., Adams-Mushett, C., & Smith, K. L. (1995). Athletic identity and sport orientation of adolescent swimmers with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 12, 113-123.
Complete Details
Deborah Shapiro, Department of Kinesiology and Health MSC74A0105, Georgia State University, 33 Gilmer St., SE, Unit 7, Atlanta, GA 30303; dshapiro@gsu.edu.
